Required Knowledge – PRO EXPERT WRITINGS

Organizational mission and function and how these influence the nature and development of the group work service. 2. Social and institutional barriers that may impact on the development of group work service. 3. How to assess the impact on the group in the community and agency context. 4. Issues associated with group composition (for example, gender, education, socioeconomic status, previous group experi-

ence, occupation, race, ethnicity, age, and presenting problems). 5. The influence of cultural factors on potential members’ lives and their ways of engaging in group interactions and relation-

ships with others, the agency, and the worker. 6. The importance of diversity in relationship to how a group attains its goals. 7. The theoretical approaches utilized by group workers and how to select the ones most appropriate and effective for the

proposed group. 8. Issues associated with group structure (for example, group size, length of sessions, duration of group, meeting place, open

or closed to new members, resources and supplies, and transportation). 9. The impact of human development/life-cycle factors on potential members’ needs and abilities and group goals.

Types of groups, such as task groups, treatment groups, psychoeducational groups, and sociorecreational groups, and their applicability to individual, organizational, and community needs.

Issues related to group content such as discussion processes and purposeful use of activities and simulations. Such issues include how these kinds of content are affected by stage of group development, capacities of members, and the purposes of the group.

Contracting procedures, including the identification and clarification of group purpose, behavioral standards, and norms needed to actualize group goals as determined by potential members, the worker, and the agency.

Recruitment procedures such as community outreach and referral processes. 14. How to identify and develop resources required for group functioning. 15. Group monitoring and evaluation procedures (for example, group progress notes, pretest and posttest measures, and ques-

tionnaires) to track worker interventions, group progress, and the group work service. 16. The importance of consultation and supervision in enhancing the quality of group work service.

Section III: Group Work in the Beginning Phase

Tasks and Skills

Task: Establishing a Beginning Contract The worker and members collaboratively develop a beginning contract for work that identifies tasks to be accomplished, goals to be achieved, and the process by which the work is to occur. The worker identifies the community’s and/or agen- cy’s stake in the group, the group purpose and process, and clarifies worker and member roles. Confidentiality and limits thereof are clearly identified. The worker assists members in identifying and clarifying individual goals and group goals. The worker helps the members link individual goals with group purposes. The worker invites full participation of all members and solicits member feedback on the progress of the group. The worker employs special skills in working with mandated mem- bers and understands the impact on group dynamics of members’ mandated status.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership98

FIGURE 3.1 (continued)

Task: Cultivating Group Cohesion The worker establishes rapport with individual members and the group as a whole. The worker also aids the group members in establishing relationships with one another so as to promote group cohesion. The worker highlights member commonali- ties, links members to one another, and encourages direct member-to-member communication.

Task: Shaping Norms of Participation The worker seeks to aid the group in establishing norms for participation that promote safety and trust, facilitate a culture of work, and cultivate mutual aid. The worker is active in modeling these norms and instructing members when needed about produc- tive group participation. The worker appreciates the impact of various psychological, sociocultural, and environmental forces on these norms. The worker promotes group exploration of nonproductive norms when these arise. The worker demonstrates respect for sociocultural differences, promotes autonomy and self-determination, and encourages member empowerment.

Required Knowledge

An understanding of the dynamic interaction between the community, agency, group, and individual members of the group with which he or she is working.

The relevant theories and evidence-based practices regarding the developmental, psychosocial, and clinical needs of the group members and how this informs beginnings.

The group type and technology being employed and the ways such may impact group functioning in the beginning stage. 4. The characteristics and needs of the beginning stage of group development and the related skills. Knowledge is needed

regarding such variations as working with mandated members, replacing a previous worker, and receiving new members into an ongoing group.

Section IV: Group Work in the Middle Phase

Group Tasks and Worker Skills/Action:

Task: Assist group to make progress on individual and group goals. When group goals are a major focus, as in task and com- munity groups, the worker encourages individual members to use their skills in pursuit of group goals.

Skills/actions: a. Reinforce connections between individual concerns/needs and group goals. b. Offer programmatic ideas and activities that support group purpose and assist in helping members achieve individual

and group goals. c. Assess progress toward individual and group goals. d. Identify difficulties and obstacles that interfere with the group and its members’ abilities to reach their goals. e. If obstacles are related to the specific needs of an individual member, when appropriate, offer individual time outside of group. f. Ensure that group has attended to any special needs of individual members (for example, physical, cognitive, language,

or cultural needs). g. Assist members to engage in problem solving, in making choices and decisions, and in evaluating potential outcomes of

decisions. h. Summarize sessions with the group. i. Plan next steps with the group. j. Recontract with members, if needed, to assist in achieving individual and group goals.

Task: Attend to group dynamics/processes.

Skills/actions a. Support members to develop a system of mutual aid. b. Clarify and interpret communication patterns among members, between members and workers, and between the group

systems and systems outside the group. c. Model and encourage honest communication and feedback among members and between members and workers. d. Review group values and norms. e. Assist members to identify and articulate feelings. f. Assist members to perceive verbal and nonverbal communication.

g. Help members mediate conflict within the group. h. Assist members to make connections with other group members that may continue after the group ends, if this is appropriate. i. Use tools of empowerment to assist members to develop “ownership” of the group.

99 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

Task: 1. Assist members to identify and access resources from inside and outside the group. 2. Include knowledge, skills, and other resources of group worker, group members, and sources outside the group. 3. Ensure that workers are using the best possible practice techniques in facilitating the group.

Skills/actions: 1. Use group approaches appropriate to the populations served and the tasks undertaken as demonstrated in the literature,

worker and agency experience, and other sources of professional knowledge. 2. Use record-keeping techniques to monitor leadership skills and group process. 3. Access and use supervision.

Required Knowledge

Group dynamics. 2. Role theory and its application to members’ relationships with one another and the worker. 3. Communication theory and its application to verbal and nonverbal interactions within the group and between the group

and others external to the group. 4. Problem-solving processes in groups. 5. Conflict resolution in groups. 6. Organizational theories. 7. Community theories. 8. Developmental theories. 9. Evaluation theories and methods.

The impact of diversity, class, race, gender, sexual orientation, and ability status. 11. Knowledge about the group’s relations with its environment. 12. Specific knowledge of issues being addressed in the group. 13. Awareness of self.

Section V: Group Work in the Ending Phase

Tasks and Skills

Prepare members for the group’s ending in advance. 2. In a direct practice group, help members identify gains they have made and changes that have resulted from their participa-

tion in the group. In a task group, members may discuss what they have learned from this experience that will be useful to them in other task groups. This involves a consideration of how achieving group goals will contribute to the functioning of the organization and/or community.

Discuss the impact of the group on systems outside of the group (for example, family, organization, community). 4. Discuss the movement the group has made over time. 5. Identify and discuss direct and indirect signs of members’ reactions to ending. 6. Share worker’s feelings about ending the group. 7. Assist members in sharing their feelings about ending with one another and with the worker. 8. Systematically evaluate the achievement of individual and group goals. Routine and systematic evaluation of the group

experience could/should occur over time rather than in the ending stage alone. 9. Help members make connections with other agencies and programs as appropriate.

Assist members in applying new knowledge and skills to their daily lives. 11. Encourage members to give feedback to the worker on the worker’s role and actions in the group. 12. Help members apply new knowledge and skills to their activities outside of the group. 13. Prepare record material about the group for the agency, for individual members, and for referrals as needed.

Required Knowledge

Group dynamics related to endings. These will be different depending on the type of group (for example, long-term, short- term, open-ended, single session). There are also special issues when a member or worker leaves the group but parts of the group continue or there is a new worker.

Formal and informal resources that maintain and enhance members’ growth.

(continued)

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership100

FIGURE 3.1 (continued)

Influence of past losses and separation in lives of members and the worker on endings. 4. Agency policies related to the worker maintaining connections following the ending of a group or member service. 5. Various forms of evaluation, formal and informal, and of evaluation measures, both qualitative and quantitative.

Section VI: Ethical Considerations

National and/or regional social work organizations typically have codes of ethics to which social workers must adhere. For example, social group workers in the United States are expected to be knowledgeable about and responsive to the ethical mandates of the social work profession, as explicated in the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics. Although the entire code is important, there are items with particular relevance to social group work.

Similarly, Canadian social workers must follow the Canadian Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics (2005). The expectation of AASWG is that social workers will respect the code of ethics relevant to their locations of practice wherever in the world that may be, as long as it is respectful of all persons.

Other social work ethical guides exist and may be more relevant for specific countries. Each needs to be considered in the context of work with groups and may call for some modifications or additions that reflect the unique situations of group work.

Elements of Ethical Practice in Social Group Work

Knowledge and use of best practices that reflect the state of the art and knowledge and research evidence regarding social work with groups.

A basic discussion with prospective members of informed consent and an explanation of what group work offers and requires of the members individually and as a group.

Maximizing member choice and minimizing coercive processes by members or workers to the extent possible. Emphasizing member self-determination and empowerment of the group.

Discussion of the importance, limits, and implications of privacy and confidentiality with the members. 5. Helping the group maintain the purposes for which it was formed, allowing for changes as mutually agreed upon. 6. Each member is given the help he or she requires within the parameters of the group’s purpose, including individual meet-

ings when appropriate. 7. Clarifying the decision-making process. 8. Clarifying how members may be chosen for or excluded from the group. 9. Maintaining group records and storing them in a secure location.

Ethical Issues in the Use of New Techniques

As new techniques are used, such as those based on electronic communications, workers should pay attention to ethical issues, practice skills, and knowledge and evaluation of these techniques. The following is a general statement with reference to electronic communications:

Increasingly, practice with groups of all kinds is being done by utilizing technologies such as computer and telephone facilities, and professional associations are assessing both effectiveness and ethical issues.

Issues such as member interaction, decision making, group structure, mutual aid, and particularly confidentiality are of vital concern.

Worker competency may require new skills and knowledge not only in technology but also in communication techniques. Clearly these technologies are likely to be extremely valuable for all persons seeking resources, as well as for the profession’s abil-

ity to share information about practice, including emerging approaches. In the meantime, workers contemplating their use should consider the appropriate codes of ethics as guides and document all of their processes related to such work.

References

National Association of Social Workers. (approved, 1996, revised 1999). Code of Ethics for Social Workers. Washington, DC: NASW.

Canadian Association of Social Workers/Association Canadienne des Travailleuses Sociaux. (2005). Code of Ethics. Ottawa, Canada: CASW/ACTS.

SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups, Inc. (AASWG, Inc.) (2nd edition, 2006).

101 Summary

LO 7 Understand Strengths-Based Leadership

STRENGTHS-BASED LEADERSHIP For more than 30 years, Gallup scientists have been examining decades of data on the topic of leadership. They have studied more than 1 million work teams, conducted over 20,000 in-depth interviews with leaders, and interviewed more than 10,000 followers around the world to ask precisely why they followed the most important leader in their life.

In the text, Strengths Based Leadership, authors Tom Rath and Barry Conchie reveal the results of this research.24 The findings demonstrate that leaders get more out of their work- ers in the workplace if they emphasize that the workers should focus on doing what they are already good at. Efforts to correct shortcomings of the workers rarely pay off. Leaders also need to amplify their own strengths, rather than seek to correct their shortcomings. The findings further indicate that to be an effective leader, the leader needs to know his or her strengths and to get the people with the right strengths on his or her team. It is a mistake for a leader to seek to convey to the workers that she or he has all the desirable characteristics that workers admire, as no one can possibly have all those qualities.

When followers were asked what qualities they most admired in leaders, a large number of qualities were identified. These include the following: building trust, showing compas- sion, creating hope for success, making things happen by turning thoughts into action, being adaptable, having the ability to identify all the factors that might affect a situation, having good organizational skills, being ethical, having a “presence” by being able to take control of a situation and making good decisions, being a good conversationalist and presenter, being good at anticipating the obstacles to succeeding, being good at recognizing and cultivating the potential in others, having and conveying empathy for others, being good at making cor- rections to stay on track, being able to inspire others with their visions of a better future, being good at building consensus, being accepting of others, having a gift for figuring out how peo- ple who are different can work together productively, appreciating intellectual discussions, having a great desire to learn and wanting to continuously improve, being upbeat and having an enthusiasm that is contagious, having deep satisfaction in working with others to achieve desirable goals, being committed to stable values such as honesty and loyalty, being good at figuring out what is wrong and resolving it, having self-confidence that their decisions are right, and loving the challenge of meeting new people and winning them over.

Given this laundry list of desired qualities in a leader, it is clear that no one can possibly have all these qualities. Leaders need to identify their own strengths and then amplify these strengths. Also, they need to get the right people on their team with the strengths they are lacking in.

Summary

The following summarizes the chapter’s content in terms of the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter.

Describe five major approaches to leadership. Five approaches to leadership theory are summarized: trait approach, leadership-style approach, position approach, distributed-functions approach, and servant leadership approach. The preferred approach in this text is the distributed-functions approach, which asserts that every member of a group will be a leader at times by taking actions that serve group functions.

Identify effective group leadership functions, roles, and techniques. There are two specific leadership functions: the task specialist and the social/emotional (or group maintenance) specialist. Task roles for each of these functions are identified.

Understand that the use of power is a necessary component of group functioning. The terms “power” and “influence” are used interchangeably in this chapter. Both terms refer to the capacity of an individual to motivate others to carry out certain

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership102

actions or to behave in a particular way. Motivating others is a necessary component of group functioning.

Describe five bases of power in groups, and identify the different consequences of using these bases. The following power bases in groups are described: reward, coercive, legitimate, refer- ent, and expert. Referent power is thought to have the broadest range.

Understand the effects of unequal power in groups. Unequal power between group members often leads to distrust between the high- power and low power members.

Comprehend how to start and lead a group. The chapter summarizes a number of guidelines for forming and leading a group. The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups has formulated standards for social work practice with groups, which are presented in this chapter.

Understand strengths-based leadership Strengths-based leadership has found that leaders get more out of their workers in the workplace if they emphasize that the workers should focus on doing what they are already good at. Efforts to correct shortcomings of the workers rarely pay off. Leaders also need to amplify their own strengths, rather than seek to correct their shortcomings. The findings further indicate that to be an effective leader, the leader needs to know his or her strengths and to get the people with the right strengths on his or her team.

Group Exercises

EXERCISE A: Desensitizing Fears of Leading a Group GOAL: To identify the specific fears about being a designated leader for a group and to provide information to reduce those fears.

Step 1. The group leader should state the purpose of this exercise. Each student should then be handed a sheet of paper and instructed to complete anonymously the sentence “My specific fears about being a designated leader of a group are . . .” The leader should emphasize that the com- pleted statements will be collected and discussed.

Step 2. The responses should be collected in a way that ensures anonymity and then read aloud. After a concern is read, the students should suggest ways of reducing the concern. If a concern involves handling hostile members, for example, the class, with help from the instructor, may suggest strategies for coping with them. If a member fears that he or she does not have the traits needed to lead a group, it may be pointed out that research has found that no specific traits distinguish leaders from followers and that the distributed-functions theory of leadership asserts that practically anyone can be trained to be a leader.

Step 3. After Step 2 is completed the group leader or the instructor may want to summarize key points on how to lead a group and explain that future sessions will explore these points in greater depth.

EXERCISE B: Task Functions and Group Maintenance Functions GOAL: To show that at times nearly everyone takes a leadership role in groups that involves performing task and group maintenance functions.

Step 1. The group leader should indicate that this exercise will elicit the class’s thoughts on what criteria should be used for admitting students into the social work program at this campus. The

EP 1b

103 Group Exercises

leader should then explain that the Council on Social Work Education (the national organization that accredits social work programs) requires every program to have criteria for admitting stu- dents. There is considerable variation in criteria among the programs in this country. Common criteria include a minimum grade point average and a vaguely defined “aptitude for social work.”

Step 2. The class then forms subgroups of five or six students and each selects an observer. The observers then form a group in another room or hallway. The subgroups should not begin dis- cussing their primary task until the observers return.

Step 3. The observers are told that their task is to record significant task and group maintenance functions performed by each member of their subgroups. The leader may need to explain that task functions are statements designed to help the subgroup accomplish its task and that group maintenance functions are statements made to strengthen the social/emotional aspects of group life. Observers should be given a handout that summarizes the task roles and group maintenance roles developed by Johnson and Johnson, which appear in this chapter. The observers will be asked after the exercise is over to summarize to their subgroups how each member contributed through certain task and group maintenance functions.

Step 4. The leader and observers return to the subgroups. The subgroups are informed that their task is to develop criteria for admitting students to the social work program at this campus. The subgroup is free to suggest various criteria, but should probably begin by discussing:

whether a grade point average should be used for admission and what it should be, and 2. how “aptitude for social work” should be defined and measured.

Step 5. The subgroups should work for 20 to 30 minutes, and each should then state and explain its proposed criteria. Time should then be called, and each subgroup should be asked to indicate to the class what criteria were arrived at.

Step 6. The group leader should indicate that one of the purposes of this exercise is to demon- strate that most members in a group assume leadership roles by carrying out task and group maintenance functions. The leader should then define task and group maintenance functions.

Step 7. Each observer summarizes to his or her subgroup, but not to the whole class, the signifi- cant task and group maintenance functions performed by each member.

Step 8. End the exercise by asking members if they have any thoughts or comments.

EXERCISE C: Power Bases GOAL: To practice analyzing influence attempts in terms of power bases.

Step 1. The group leader explains the purpose of the exercise, describes the five bases of power developed by French and Raven, and briefly discusses the effects of using each base.

Step 2. The class divides into subgroups of three members each and answers the following questions:

What bases of power does the instructor of this course have? 2. What bases of power does a student in this class have? 3. What is the primary power base the instructor has? 4. What is the primary power base a student has?

Step 3. The subgroups share their answers to these questions by having one member from each subgroup write the answers on the blackboard. The class then discusses the reasons for the simi- larities and differences between the answers arrived at by the subgroups.

Step 4. In all likelihood the instructor will be seen as having much more power than the students. The group leader should summarize the effects of unequal power on communication and on relationships within a group (as described in this chapter). Students then discuss how they feel when an instructor attempts to present himself or herself on a level equal or superior to students. Further, what are the positive and negative aspects of each relationship?

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership104

EXERCISE D: Leading a Group GOAL: This exercise is designed to facilitate the development of group leadership skills.

Step 1. The instructor explains the purpose of the exercise. Students form subgroups of two or three students. They are instructed to prepare a presentation in a future class. Each subgroup is told its presentation needs to do the following: (1) State the goal or goals of the presenta- tion, (2) present to the rest of the class certain theoretical material that provides information on how the goals can be achieved, and (3) lead the class in one or more group exercises— exercises that illustrate key concepts and give participants practice in acquiring the skills that are described in the theoretical material. For topic suggestions, the students may want to look at the text.

Step 2. In future classes, the subgroups present. Each presentation is graded by the instructor on (a) the quality and relevancy of the material, (b) the extent to which the subgroup got the partici- pants involved and interested in the material, and (c) the extent to which the presentation was consistent with the requirements for the assignment.

Competency Notes

EP 7b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies.

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies. (pp. 72–79)

The following approaches to leadership assist students in assessing group leadership and how to be an effective group leader: trait, position, leadership style, distributed functions, and servant leadership.

The material on task roles and maintenance roles in groups assists students in understanding the roles that need to be fulfilled in order for a group to be effective.

The power bases in groups include reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert. Students need to understand power bases to assess these bases in groups, and to use these bases to improve their interventions in groups.

Guidelines are presented on how to effectively form and lead groups. The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups has formulated standards for social work practice with groups.

EP 8b

105 Key Terms and Concepts

Key Terms and Concepts

Delegating Designated Leader Influence

Leadership Machiavellianism Participating

Power Selling

Task Roles Telling

The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups has formulated standards for social work practice with groups.

EP 1b Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice situations. (p. 102)

This exercise assists students in identifying their fears about leading a group, and suggestions are generated for overcoming these fears.

This exercise is designed to facilitate the development of group leadership skills in students.

106

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Just as a baseball team has a short-term goal of winning a game and a long-term goal of clinching a pennant, individuals and groups must identify short-term and long-term goals to function effectively. This chapter will help prepare students to:

LO 1 Set personal and group goals in groups.

LO 2 Understand and identify hidden agendas.

LO 3 Comprehend the differences between competitive groups and cooperative groups.

LO 4 Apply the nominal group approach.

LO 5 Understand the importance of group norms, and comprehend how norms are formed.

LO 6 Identify group pressures to conform.

LO 7 Identify various types of hostile or disruptive group members, and comprehend how to handle disruptive group members.

Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms

LO 1 Set Personal and Group Goals in Groups

SET TING PERSONAL AND GROUP GOALS A goal is an end toward which an individual or group of people is working. It is an ideal or a desired achievement that people value. A personal goal is a goal held by a member of a group. A group goal is a goal held by enough members of a group that the group can be said to be working toward achieving it.

All groups have goals, and every individual who joins a group has personal goals. Groups generally have both short-range and long-range goals. The short- range goals should be stepping-stones to the long-range goals. Group goals are important for several reasons. The effectiveness and efficiency of the group and its procedures can be measured by the extent to which goals are achieved. Goals guide groups and their members by giving the group’s programs and efforts direc- tion. Conflicts between group members are often resolved according to which position is most helpful in achieving group goals. Group goals are also a strong motivating force that stimulates members to work together. Once members make a commitment to achieve a certain goal, they will feel an obligation to put forth their abilities, efforts, and resources to achieve it.

A member’s commitment to a group goal will depend on (1) how attracted this member is to the group; (2) how attractive the goal appears; (3) how likely it appears the group can accomplish the goal; (4) the ability to measure progress toward achieving the goal and the ability to measure when the goal is attained; (5) the rewards the group and the member will receive when the goal is attained; (6) the challenge presented by the goal, as a moderate risk of failure is usually more challenging than a high or low risk of failure1; and (7) the types of interactions the member will have with other group members in working toward the goal (some ways of interacting are more enjoyable and rewarding than others).

Setting group goals is the first step in measuring the effectiveness of a group. Once goals are set, the tasks necessary to accomplish the goals must be deter- mined. Next, responsibilities for carrying out the tasks must be agreed upon or assigned and deadlines for completing those tasks set. As the process proceeds, the extent to which deadlines have been met and tasks achieved must be evaluated. The final measurement is whether the group has achieved its goals. An effective group is one that has considerable success in achieving its goals. (The processes of setting group goals, determining the tasks for accomplishing the goals, assign- ing tasks to each member, and setting deadlines for accomplishing the tasks are, in reality, also the components of forming contracts with group members about expectations. Contracts and group goals should be reviewed periodically as the group progresses and revised if necessary.)

107 Set Personal and Group Goals in Groups

Group members will be more motivated to achieve group goals if they are involved in set- ting those goals. Through involvement, members will be (1) more likely to have their personal goals become a component of the group goals, (2) more aware of the importance of choosing these goals, and (3) more committed to providing their resources to achieve the goals.

Personal Goals The personal goals of members may be very diverse. In a stress management group, for example, some members may join because they want to learn how to relax, others because they are lonely and want companionship, and still others because their spouses urged them. Some may join because they have heard good things about the group leader and want to “check it out.” A few may join because they do not believe stress is destructive and want to convince others of this belief.

Although some members are acutely aware of their personal goals, others may not be. For example, freshman social work majors sometimes attend a meeting of the Student Social Work Club at the urging of a faculty member without having given much thought to their personal goals and objectives.

The more similarity there is between the personal goals of members and the goals of the group, the more attracted to the group the members are likely to be and the more will- ing to provide their resources and energies to the group. If the personal goals of the group are homogeneous (alike), members are more apt to agree on group goals, to work together toward achieving those goals, and to be happier with the group. Heterogeneous personal goals do not necessarily spell failure for a group, but they do require special attention.

EXERCISE 4.1 Identifying Your Personal Goals

GOAL: We need to identify our personal goals in every group we participate in so that we then can select the kinds of group activities that will allow us to achieve our personal goals, and thereby result in the group being personally useful to us. This exercise is designed to assist you in setting personal goals.

Specify the personal goals that you have in this class. Your personal goals should include a summary of the knowledge, skills, and values you want to acquire and perhaps also the grade you hope to attain.

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 108

LO 2 Understand and Identify Hidden Agendas

HIDDEN AGENDAS When members have heterogeneous personal goals, hidden agendas are more likely to develop. (If members have homogeneous personal goals, these goals are apt to become group goals, and hidden agendas are less likely to arise.) A hidden agenda is a personal goal

EXERCISE 4.2 Hidden Agendas and Their Effects

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand hidden agendas, their effects, and how you can more effectively respond to someone who has a hidden agenda in a group.

Describe a group that you participated in where one of the other members had a hidden agenda that was eventually revealed. What was the hidden agenda? How did this hidden agenda adversely affect the group?

How effective were the other group members in handling this hidden agenda?

As you reflect on how the other group members handled this hidden agenda, is there a course of action that could have been taken that would have dealt with this hidden agenda more effectively? If “yes,” describe this course of action.

Describe a hidden agenda that you had when participating in a group. How did your hidden agenda affect the group?

109 Understand and Identify Hidden Agendas

held by a member but unknown to other group members, which interferes with the group’s efforts. At times, hidden agendas can be very destructive. For example, I have participated in groups where an individual observed the comments and actions of others to obtain evi- dence to bring legal harassment charges. Usually, however, hidden agendas are less destruc- tive than this and may consist of little more than a lonely person’s wish to monopolize the group’s “air time” with insignificant small talk. Because this type of behavior can slow progress severely, a group’s goals should incorporate to some extent the personal goals of its members. Leaders can also minimize the effects of hidden agendas by making the group’s goals clear at the outset.

Certain signals suggest hidden agendas. A member may fail to contribute or may say and do things that impede group activities. When hidden agendas appear to exist, the consequences of confronting a member about disruptive behavior must be evaluated. If the consequences appear beneficial, then the member should be confronted, either openly or privately. Whatever method of confrontation appears to be most beneficial should be used. Sometimes, however, hidden agendas are best left undisturbed. For example, a group member who has recently experienced the death of a spouse may use a nontherapy group to ventilate pain. In this situation, it may or may not be constructive to confront the person.

When confronting a member about a hidden agenda, avoid blaming or criticizing. The confrontation should lead to a trusting, open discussion of the issue. If the hidden agenda is rational and legitimate, extensive efforts should be made to help the member. Alternatives for resolving the concern could be explored and one or more implemented to resolve the problem. (Later in this chapter, additional suggestions are given on how to confront some- one.) Perhaps the goals of the group can even be revised to incorporate the more personal issue, or perhaps the member can be helped to achieve the personal goal outside the group. A group member grieving over the death of a spouse, for example, may be referred to a counselor or to a survivors’ group where the grief can be expressed and worked out more effectively.

ESTABLISHING GROUP GOALS Although group goals can be developed in a variety of ways, the procedures in the fol- lowing sections are recommended because they involve group members in the decision- making process. After the leader shares his or her views on the goals of the group, members are asked to explain their own reasons for joining—that is, their personal goals. Work- ing together, the leader and group members discuss the merits of the goals presented and discuss additional goals, refining and rewording them until a final list is developed. Decision-making procedures, as outlined in Chapter 6, may be used to resolve conflicts and attain agreement. The final list should be typed and distributed to each member for reference.

Alternatively, the group leader may interview each member before the first meeting about personal and group goals and then develop a composite list to present at the first meeting of the group. This list is then discussed and amended until most members are satisfied. A less effective way to determine group goals is for the leader to attempt to “sell” the group a set of goals he or she believes is preferable. If group goals are prescribed in this manner or by the constitution of the group, they should still be fully discussed by members, who may refine and reword them.

Effective groups usually follow a variation of the following format. Long-range goals are set first, and efforts are made to state these goals in operational and measur- able terms. Short-range goals are then established and prioritized as to their impor- tance in achieving the long-range goals. Tasks are also identified to achieve short-range goals and then ranked according to their importance. For high-priority tasks, specific responsibilities are assigned to group members and deadlines are set for completion. Future evaluations then identify the progress being made in achieving the tasks and goals.

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 110

Operational and Measurable Goals An operational goal is one that can be directly translated into courses of action to achieve the goal. A goal such as “Each member of this class will be able to describe the difference between personal and group goals” is operational. Students could put this goal into action by studying the first part of this chapter and then taking a test that asks them to define both terms. The test scores measure whether the class reached the goal.

A nonoperational goal is one that cannot be achieved through specific actions. “Every- one in this class will learn how to cure all emotional and behavioral problems,” for example, is nonoperational because treatment approaches have not been developed to treat success- fully all people who have emotional and behavioral problems. A goal that is nonoperational is much harder to achieve. For instance, it may be centuries before we know whether it is possible to treat all emotional and behavioral problems successfully.

In practice, groups should strive to develop operational goals so that a course of action can be developed and the goal more readily achieved. “Helping students to better manage stress in their lives through instructing them in meditation,” for example, is much more operational than “Seeking ways to help students better manage stress.”

Group goals should also be measurable. For example, the goal “Having everyone in this class become a great group leader” is very difficult to measure without criteria to use in judging what constitutes a great leader. In contrast, the following goal is more measurable: “By the end of this semester, every student in this class will have demonstrated that she or he can lead a group at a level that the instructor deems satisfactory.” One way to make this goal operational is by having the students take turns being a group leader. For each session the instructor then rates the student who leads the group as doing a “satisfactory” or “less than satisfactory” job. Students who receive a “less than satisfactory” rating can be given additional opportunities to lead the class and have their performance rated again. Progress toward this goal is simply measured by counting the number of students who receive an overall “satisfactory” rating.

Operational, measurable goals are valuable for a variety of reasons. They help guide the members and the group in planning and working on tasks. A group that is unclear as to what its goals are will be even more confused as to what specific tasks are needed to reach those goals. Operational and measurable goals also measure the effectiveness of the leader because the leader’s actions can be judged in terms of movement toward group goals. Clear goals, in fact, often make leadership easier because the group knows what it is trying to achieve and is less likely to question a leader’s actions that move the group toward its goals.

In addition, operational and measurable goals make it easier to communicate the pur- pose of the group to other groups and to nonmembers. Such goals also help evaluate prog- ress. Each course of action can be assessed to determine its payoffs in attaining goals. The group can easily determine whether a course of action should be continued or abandoned. Clear goals and documented progress toward those goals are especially valuable when accountability is required by funding sources or others. A final advantage is that conflicts between members can often be resolved by determining which position appears to best help the group reach its goals. When conflicts arise in groups that do not have measurable and operational goals, there is no logical way to determine whose view has higher payoffs. As a result, the conflict is not apt to be resolved and may force the group to spend more time maintaining harmony than completing its work.

Forming clear goals that are operational and measurable is a lengthy, time-consuming process. The goal-setting stage is often when a group flounders the most. It occurs early in the life of a group, when members are also testing their interest and commitment and when interpersonal relationships are being formed. Arriving at goals the members can support often takes much longer than anticipated. The value of setting clear goals, however, far outweighs the time and effort saved by accepting goals that are vague and that may later be seriously challenged. Johnson and Johnson note, “The more time a group spends establish- ing agreement on clear goals, the less time it needs in achieving them—and the more likely it will be that the members will work effectively for the common outcome.”2

EP 7b EP 9b

111 Understand and Identify Hidden Agendas

EXERCISE 4.3 Group Goals and Personal Goals in This Class

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding the dynamics between group goals and personal goals.

Specify the group goals that the instructor wants for this class. (Usually, the “Course Objectives” section of the syllabus will specify the group goals desired by the instructor. In his or her lectures, the instructor may have identified additional desired group goals.)

Have all the students in the class “accepted” the desired group goals? If “no,” describe why you believe some students have not accepted the instructor’s group goals.

Did the instructor ask the students for additional group goals that they desired for the class? If “yes,” did the students suggest additional group goals? If “yes,” what were the additional group goals that were suggested, and were they adopted for this class?

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 112

Research has found that groups have a better chance to be effective when the following are met:

The goals are clear, operationally defined, and measurable. 2. The members see the goals as being relevant, attainable, meaningful, and acceptable. 3. Both personal and group goals can be attained by the same activities and tasks. 4. The goals are viewed as challenging and have a moderate risk of failure. 5. The resources needed to accomplish the tasks are available. 6. There is high coordination among group members. 7. The group members maintain a cooperative rather than a competitive atmosphere.3

LO 3 Comprehend the Differences Between Competitive Groups and Cooperative Groups

COMPETITION VERSUS COOPERATION Groups tend to have either a cooperative or a competitive atmosphere. A cooperative group is marked by open and honest communication, trust, pooling of resources, and cohesion. Research into problem-solving groups has found a number of positive consequences of a cooperative group atmosphere. Cooperation among members increases creativity, coordina- tion of effort, division of labor, emotional involvement in group accomplishment, helping

EP 7b

Do you believe some members of the class have personal goals or hidden agendas that are inconsistent with the group goals? (These personal goals or hidden agendas may include “not wanting to study very much” or “wanting help in resolving a personal dilemma.”) If “yes,” specify these inconsistent personal goals or hidden agendas.

Earlier in Exercise 4.1 you identified your personal goals for this class. Are your personal goals consistent with the group goals? If some are inconsistent, please specify these inconsistent personal goals.

113 Comprehend the Differences Between Competitive Groups and Cooperative Groups

and sharing, interpersonal skills, cooperative attitudes and values, positive self-attitudes, congeniality among group members, positive attitudes toward the group and tasks, diver- gent thinking, acceptance of individual and cultural differences, and problem-solving skills.4

A cooperative group atmosphere results when the personal goals of group members are perceived to be compatible, identical, or complementary. An example of a highly coopera- tive group is a football team where the main goal of each member is to win, and the main goal of the team is to win. In a cooperative group, each member seeks to coordinate his or her efforts with those of other group members to achieve the goals of the group. In estab- lishing a cooperative atmosphere, rewards to members must be based on the quantity and quality of group performance, rather than on individual performance.

In contrast, a competitive atmosphere is usually destructive. Competition exists when the members perceive their personal goals to be incompatible, different, conflicting, or mutually exclusive. In a highly competitive group, a member can achieve a goal only if the other group members fail to obtain their goals.5 A group interview of several applicants for a job vacancy, such as an audition for a play, for example, is intentionally competitive. Each member seeks to accomplish personal goals while seeking to block other group members from accomplishing theirs. The negative consequences of competition in problem-solving groups are numerous. Competition decreases creativity, coordination of effort, division of

EXERCISE 4.4 The Effects of a Competitive Group Member

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand the effects of a competitive group member and to then reflect upon what a group might constructively do to minimize the adverse effects of a competitive member.

Describe the behavior of a competitive person in a group in which you participated. Did the competitive behavior adversely affect the group? If “yes,” please specify the adverse effects.

When a competitive person adversely affects a group, what constructive course of action might the other group members take in order to minimize the adverse effects?

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 114

labor, helping and sharing, and cohesion. Competition promotes ineffective communica- tion, suspicion and mistrust, high anxiety about goal accomplishment, competitive values and attitudes, negative self-attitudes, animosity between group members, and negative atti- tudes toward the group and its tasks. Competition also encourages the rejection of differ- ences of opinion, divergent thinking, and cultural and individual differences. A competitive atmosphere leads to low effectiveness in solving complex problems.6

Are there any situations in which competition is beneficial? There are a few. For example, in team sports coaches have discovered it is beneficial to have highly talented athletes compete for starting positions. Such competition generally encourages athletes to work harder. But even in team sports, successful coaches know that a key to winning is instilling a sense of team effort (that is, cooperative atmosphere) so that each player focuses not on individual recogni- tion but on helping the team win by playing the role he or she has been assigned.

Kelly and Stahelski examined the question of what happens when a competitive person joins a group that has a cooperative atmosphere.7 Because cooperative groups are much more effective in solving problems than competitive groups, the question is significant. Three consequences were found to occur. The competitive behavior of the new member leads the other members to behave competitively. The competitive person views the former cooperative members as having always been competitive. The former cooperative members are generally aware that their com- petitive behavior is largely a consequence of the new member’s competitiveness. Thus, it appears that one competitive person can change a cooperative group into a competitive group.

The positive characteristics of a cooperative group are readily destroyed by a competitive person. All of the following decrease when a competitive person joins a formerly cooperative group: trust, congeniality among members, openness of communication, and problem-solving orientation.8 Why does a competitive person have such a strong, destructive effect? Apparently, the cooperative members realize the competitive person will, if given a chance, take advantage of their cooperativeness and use it to his or her personal advantage. In many situations, their only recourse to prevent exploitation is to become competitive. Thus, even though cooperation is by far the most effective atmosphere in problem-solving groups, it takes only one competitive per- son to change the atmosphere to a destructive, competitive one. If a cooperative group is to sur- vive, the members must work together to reduce feelings of competitiveness among the members.

LO 4 Apply the Nominal Group Approach

THE NOMINAL GROUP APPROACH The nominal group approach, developed by Delbecq and Van de Ven, can be used as an aid in formulating group goals.9 This approach is a problem-identification technique for designing or modifying programs and involves meeting with potential users to assess their needs. A nominal group is “a group in which individuals work in the presence of others but do not verbally interact.”10 By simply allowing group members to list their needs on paper without group discussion, each member’s personal views can be ascertained. Too often in the past, new programs have been developed by “experts” who lacked a clear picture of the needs of their consumers, with the result being the creation of programs that ineffec- tively serve consumers. So the prime objective of the nominal group approach is to identify the needs of the consumer group (that is, the potential users of a new service) in order to develop a program that effectively serves them.11

A nominal group meeting can be conducted within a half-hour or an hour; it has often been used by university faculty to identify topics students wish to have covered in classes. For example, the nominal group approach was used by the social work department at the author’s university in connection with an elective workshop in grief management.12 Enroll- ment was limited to 30 students. At the first class meeting, the students were asked, using a nominal group approach, “What specific topics do you want covered in this course?” The specific steps in conducting a nominal group are described in Exercise C at the end of this chapter. (The responses given in the grief management class appear in Table 4.1.)

EP 7b

115 Understand the Importance of Group Norms, and Comprehend How Norms Are Formed

When a nominal group is used with a subgroup of a consumer group, care should be taken to obtain a representative cross-section of the consumer group. Before using the nominal group approach, the subgroup should be informed of the purpose of the study. However, the researchers should generally not provide any information on what they think should be the results of using the nominal group approach so as not to bias the participants.

Research on the merits of the nominal group approach suggests that it is superior to brain- storming and to other types of group interaction for generating information relevant to a prob- lem situation. It elicits more suggestions and covers more areas of interest.13 (Brainstorming has the shortcoming that the items first suggested tend to set the direction for future items that are generated.) The nominal group is designed to receive input from all group members rather than just the more vocal or aggressive ones, as often happens in conventional group discus- sions. Evaluation of items is avoided, which substantially reduces the pressure against express- ing minority opinions or unconventional ideas. Conflicting, incompatible ideas are tolerated. Furthermore, the approach appears to save time, as it can be conducted faster than interacting group processes.14 The nominal group approach has a gamelike quality, as the group generates creative tension, which appears to stimulate individuals to do their best in suggesting items.

LO 5 Understand the Importance of Group Norms, and Comprehend How Norms Are Formed

GROUP NORMS Group norms are rules that specify proper group behavior. To be a norm, a rule must be accepted by a majority of the group. If a person recognizes a norm and believes the benefits of conforming outweigh the consequences of deviating, the norm can influence that per- son’s behavior. At first, members may conform because of pressures from the group. As time passes, though, members generally internalize norms and conform automatically. Norms

TABLE 4.1 Highest-Ranking Topics for Grief Management Course

Topics Number of Votes

Suicide 13

Getting over the loss and loneliness that result from the death of someone else 9

The terminally ill and how to relate to them 9

Funeral director—guest speaker 9

AIDS 8

Getting over the loss of a close relationship 8

Coping skills for myself and others 8

Hospice movement—guest speaker 8

How to come to terms with your own death 7

Should one be permitted to take one’s own life? 7

How to change fears and negative attitudes about death 6

Communication with survivors (that is, people who have had someone close to them die) 6

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) 6

Life after death 5

How to help others (parents) deal with the death of someone close (children) 4

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 116

provide one of the most important mechanisms of social control over members of groups and over society as a whole.

Every group has norms. If you frequently socialize with a certain group of students, for example, your group will gradually set norms as to what is acceptable and unaccept- able behavior at gatherings. Your classes will have certain norms as well, covering smok- ing, chewing bubble gum, arriving late, absences, meeting deadlines, raising a hand before speaking, and cheating on exams.

Some norms are set formally—bylaws and constitutions of organizations, for instance, specify responsibilities for the officers. Other norms are set informally. During a depart- ment meeting, the department chair may frown at a faculty member who is reading her mail. If that faculty member responds to the nonverbal communication and puts aside her mail, other faculty members may observe the nonverbal interaction and decide never to read their mail during meetings. Through this process a norm against reading mail has informally been established.

Norms have an “ought to” or “must” quality, and they vary in importance. There are strong pressures to obey and, in some cases, severe penalties for violating important norms—confidentiality in therapy groups, for example. If a member violates confidentiality by revealing personal information about another member to others outside the group, he or she may be penalized by expulsion from the group. Failure to obey less important norms, such as not belching at meetings, generates only mild disapproval and little or no penalty.

Members are often only subconsciously aware of many of the norms that are guiding their behavior. If one were to ask a group member to define the group’s norms, he or she would probably be able to list only a few because many norms are taken for granted. Norms relating to dress, promptness, or foul language are often given little thought by group members.

When people enter a new group, they generally feel strange and uncomfortable because they are unaware of the norms. So they search for clues to norms, asking themselves such questions as these: What is appropriate to disclose, and what is not? Who is in the “in” group, and who is left out? Is smoking permissible? Can I tell a joke? Do members raise their hands before speaking? What role does each member play? Is the group competitive or cooperative? Are there hidden agendas? Are there coalitions? Which members are more powerful?

How Norms Are Learned and Developed Some group norms are fairly universal, so new members who have worked in groups before will be aware of many norms that are likely to be operating. For example, an individual who joins a therapy group will expect other members to be honest, open, and self-disclosing. Many groups have norms such as reciprocity (if someone, does something kind or helpful for you, you should do something kind or helpful in return), fair play (don’t lie or cheat to get what you want), social responsibility (you should help those who need it), and shared air time (everyone should have a chance to talk and no one should monopolize the conversation).

New members learn norms by talking privately with a group member they trust. They may ask questions like this: Who has the power? Is it acceptable to say or do such and such? Are there coalitions in the group? Do some members have hidden agendas? Are there personal matters that some members are sensitive about? Someone who is overweight, for example, may express discomfort with comments on dieting, and other members may indi- vidually decide not to mention dieting when the overweight person is present.

Although norms are learned in a variety of ways, the most common way is through positive and negative reinforcement. Through a process of trial and error, members iden- tify which of their behaviors are accepted and rewarded by the group and which are judged inappropriate or destructive. Another way members identify norms is through “modeling,” which involves learning through observing another member’s behavior.

Some norms are in the bylaws, constitution, minutes, and/or other documents of a group or organization. For example, there may be guidelines for placing an item on the agenda, the duties and responsibilities of the officers, and the decision-making procedures for resolving crucial issues. Furthermore, norms can take the form of role expectations

117 Understand the Importance of Group Norms, and Comprehend How Norms Are Formed

that can be official or unofficial. Officially, the chair of a group is expected to call and run meetings; the secretary keeps minutes. Unofficially, a wealthy member is expected to make donations when the group needs funds. Likewise, a member who is skilled at reducing ten- sion is expected to ease the tension level when it gets too high.

Some norms develop less formally through nonverbal communication. For example, the leader of a therapy group may shake her head in disapproval of one member mimicking another. The other members note the gesture and then individually (without discussion) decide not to mimic anyone in the group in the future.

Some norms become known only after they are violated. Napier and Gershenfeld give an example:

A minister may preach about justice and racial equality and may urge his congregation to live according to these principles, all of which they accept from him. However, when he marches in a picket line, the congregation may rebuke him for transcending his position.

EXERCISE 4.5 Group Norms in This Class

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in identifying group norms and understanding the processes that led to their development.

Specify the group norms that exist for proper behavior in this class.

Identify the processes that occurred that led to these group norms. (For example, the department may have standards for acceptable behavior in a class; the Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers has statements on confidentiality, honesty, and opposition to making racist and sexist remarks. The Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Council on Social Work Education has statements on diversity, promoting social and economic justice, and advancing human rights. The instructor may have made statements about proper behavior in this class. Some students may have made statements about what they view as offensive remarks and behaviors.)

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 118

He may be sanctioned with a statement to the effect that ministers may preach about justice and equality, but action on social issues is for others. In this situation, neither the minister nor the congregation knew the norm existed until an action took place that was contrary to the norm; the congregation then made known the violation by the threat of sanctions.15

New norms may develop from suggestions on group policy or procedures made by group members. For example, a member may suggest, “In order for an item to be placed on the agenda, the members must be informed of it at least 48 hours prior to the meeting to give them an opportunity to think about it.” If the group approves of the suggestion, it becomes a policy and a norm.

LO 6 Identify Group Pressures to Conform

CONFORMITY Conformity means yielding to group pressure. To conform, a group member must experi- ence conflict between the influences exerted by the group (group norms) and his or her personal values. A member experiencing this type of conflict has two options: announce an independent position or conform by agreeing with the group’s position in either an expedi- ent or a true manner. The expedient conformer can outwardly agree but inwardly disagree, whereas a true conformer agrees both outwardly and inwardly.

There have been a number of classic studies of conforming behavior. Sherif examined what has been called the “autokinetic effect” of conformity.16 In his experiment, subjects in a darkened room were asked to judge how far a dot of light moved. Although the light appeared to move, it actually did not (the autokinetic effect). Each subject saw the dot of light and made a series of individual judgments as to how far it moved. The subjects were then brought together in groups of three to judge how far the light moved. Their judgments tended to converge into a group standard. Later, when they again viewed the light by themselves, they tended to retain the group standard as their answer. The essential finding was that when a situation is ambiguous and there is no objective way of determining the “right” answer, mem- bers rely on the group to help define reality. In real life, this finding means that membership in a group determines much of what individuals will see, learn, think about, and do.

Asch also examined conforming behavior and investigated what happens when an indi- vidual’s judgment conflicts with that of other group members.17 The experiments involved two sets of cards, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Subjects from psychology classes who volunteered for the experiment were arranged in groups of seven to nine. They were seated at a table and asked to state in turn which line was closest in size to the standard. In the control groups, practically all subjects chose Line 2. The responses in the experimental groups, however, were of greater interest. In the experimental groups all of the group members except for one subject were accomplices of the experimenter. The subject was always seated so that he would give his opinion last. All of

Standard Comparison Lines

1 2 3

FIGURE 4.1 Cards in Asch Conformity Studies

119 Identify Group Pressures to Conform

the accomplices chose the same wrong line. When it came to the subject’s turn, he was faced with relying on his own judgment or conforming to the group’s judgment, even though he probably perceived it as wrong. In a variety of similar studies, Asch found that more than one-third of the subjects conformed to the group judgment. Such a high level of conformity is amazing considering there was no overt group pressure to conform, the situation was not ambiguous, and the subjects did not know each other.

According to Schachter, everyone has a need to evaluate the “rightness” of feelings, opinions, values, and attitudes, as well as the extent of abilities. He conducted studies to demonstrate that in the absence of objective, nonsocial means of evaluation, a person will rely on other people as comparative points of reference. He called this the theory of social comparison. Studies by Schachter and Singer provide support for this theory.18 Subjects were aroused by an injection of adrenaline and then exposed to the actions of a peer. In some cases, the peer (actually the experimenter’s confederate) behaved in a highly euphoric manner, whereas for other subjects he acted as if he were angry. The experi- menters predicted that those subjects who did not have an appropriate explanation for the physiological sensations aroused by the drug (because they had been uninformed or misinformed about the drug and its effects) would imitate the inappropriate behavior of the confederate and interpret their feelings in a manner consistent with the confederate’s behavior. The predictions were confirmed. Furthermore, the control subjects, who were either informed of the effects of adrenaline or did not receive the injection, displayed few imitative responses of the confederate. To a large extent, then, the peer defined social reality for the experimental subjects (that is, those subjects injected with adrenaline who did not receive an explanation of the physiological sensations aroused by the drug).

Numerous conclusions have been drawn from conformity research and are summa- rized as follows19:

Group pressure influences behavior, even when the bogus group consensus is obvi- ously wrong. In one study, for example, 50 military officers were asked to indicate which of two figures shown side by side, a star and a circle, was larger in area. The circle was clearly about one-third larger, but under group pressure, 46% of the officers agreed with the bogus group consensus that the star was larger.

Many people can be pressured into yielding on attitudes and opinions even on personally significant matters. For example, the same 50 military officers were asked, first privately and then later under group consensus conditions, to consider the statement: “I doubt whether I would make a good leader.” In private, none of the officers expressed agreement, but under unanimous group pressure, 37% expressed agreement.

Although yielding occurs more often on difficult, subjective items than on easy, objective ones, there are extremely large individual differences. A few people yield on almost all items, a few on none. Most yield on some and not on others.

When people are retested privately on the same items some time later, a major part of the yielding effect disappears because the person tends to rely on personal judgment. Yet a small part of the yielding effect remains, indicating group pressure can change attitudes.

As a group increases in size, the pressure to yield increases and more yielding occurs. When a person is opposed by only one other person, there is very little yielding. Yielding is markedly reduced when a person has the support of one other person (a partner) in the group.

Apparently, a dissident opinion has a tremendous effect in strengthening the independence of like-minded people.

In a dramatic study involving conformity, Milgram demonstrated that subjects in an experimental situation would administer electric shocks of dangerous strength to another person when instructed to do so by the experimenter.20 (The other person, unknown to the subject, did not actually receive the electrical shocks.) Even when they were instructed to give increasingly strong shocks and the victim protested in anguish, most subjects followed

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 120

the experimenter’s orders. This series of studies on obedience demonstrated that people will yield to “authoritative” commands even when the behavior is incompatible with their own normal moral standards of conduct. Milgram suggested that his studies help us understand why the German people complied with the unethical commands of Hitler. Group pressures, especially when viewed as authoritative, have a tremendous effect on a person’s actions, attitudes, and beliefs.

Idiosyncrasy Credits Every member of a group gains credits (and increased status) by exhibiting competence and conforming to the expectations applicable at a given time. Even- tually, these credits allow a person to break the norms and rules of the group without being chastised. To some extent, after credits have been accumulated, nonconformity to general procedures or expectations serves as a confirming feature of one’s status and further enhances one’s position. Yet there is a limit to the number of idiosyncrasy credits awarded. Noncon- formity beyond this limit will result in a dramatic decrease in status and perhaps even in rejection by the other group members.21 For example, a star basketball player at a college may eventually be kicked off the team if he or she continues to be arrested for criminal activity.

EXERCISE 4.6 Your Yielding to Group Pressure

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand that all of us have yielded at one time or another to group pressure. The exercise also helps you understand your feelings about yielding.

Describe a group that you participated in, in which you yielded to group pressure. Specify the issue or action that you yielded to. (If you have difficulty in identifying a time when you yielded, feel free to identify an issue in which you yielded to pressure from your parents.)

Specify your thoughts and feelings during the time when you yielded. Also specify your thoughts and feelings after you yielded.

If you had to do it over, would you still yield? Why or why not?

EP 1b

121 Identify Group Pressures to Conform

Do’s and Don’ts of Norms Norms should be established that will improve the group’s capacity to function effectively, such as starting meetings on time or cooperating rather than competing. Because norms exist only to allow the group to function effectively, nonfunctional norms should be identi- fied and then either discarded or replaced with more appropriate standards. In some set- tings, it is desirable to write down crucial norms. In group homes for delinquent youths, for example, all the rules about smoking, drinking, curfew hours, attending school, and domes- tic duties should be posted so that the residents are fully aware of them. The consequences of violating these norms should also be clearly written out.

Important norms should be enforced immediately after a violation and as consistently as possible. If norms are not enforced, they will lose their effectiveness, and a new norm (that it is OK to break such a rule) may begin to emerge. In most social service settings, social workers must follow through on consequences when clients violate important norms. Social workers lose their credibility with clients when consequences do not follow viola- tions. Most centers serving runaways, for example, clearly spell out that residents cannot use alcohol or drugs while at the center. Residents who do are asked to leave. In one center, workers failed to expel a resident caught using alcohol, and the next day most of the resi- dents were drinking beer.

EXERCISE 4.7 Understanding Idiosyncrasy Credits

GOAL: This exercise is designed to show you the effects of idiosyncrasy credits.

Describe someone’s behavior that violated the norms of a group to which you belong or belonged. (Perhaps it was during a time when you went out for a night on the town with a group of friends.)

Was this norm-violating behavior tolerated by the other group members, or did the group reject this person? If the behavior was tolerated or excused by the other group members, was it because this person had idiosyncrasy credits? If “yes,” what were the bases of these credits (such as “he or she does many positive things for the group”)?

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