Modern History

Department of History
John Jay College/CUNY

His 205: Modern World History 1650 to Present
Online Overview: Readings/Notes
Note (NB) History is not neat. Historical events, overlap, occur simultaneously, and sequentially

In history, we need to revisit the past to get a better understanding of the present, and to prepare for the future. Therefore, to understand how the modern world developed from the 1650s to present (the time/period covered by this class) we must examine the Scientific Revolution as it progressed through the ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD IN EUROPEAN HISTORY (1600s-1800s)—a time when a better understanding of environments (surroundings, or situations) enabled people to change/improve the quality of life in Europe; an era/period when more and more new information circulated across that continent and around the world.
The Scientific Revolution refers to ongoing scholarly research, findings, and application of new information that contributed to progress and development during the Age of European Enlightenment, the period this class begins and continues to the present. The new ideas and developments also circulated globally. Contributors to progress and development during the Enlightenment Period included philosophers or intellectuals, scholars, and scientists.
The SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION began centuries earlier than the start of our class (1650), but had progressed through the earlier periods of the Middle Ages (students to find out the time of this period) and Renaissance (students to find out the time of this period), and impacted on other world societies…one reason to begin the class in Europe. Note that by the 1650s the AGE OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION WAS STILL ONGOING)…Following explorations of Columbus, Vasco de Gama, Magellan and other Europeans.
Note the following: Revolution (Scientific) resulted in drastic changes due to ongoing research and new findings aimed at improving human lives as time passes (months, years, decades, centuries) so that when we look back at the ways in which things were done in previous times/generations we can observe distinct differences from one time period or era to the next. For example, the rotary phone and cell phone indicate distinct changes in communications.
Revolution can be a (Military) exercise with fighting during a relatively short period of time between security forces and others to overthrow a government in power = Immediate/drastic changes that can be obvious through a new form of government. For example, overthrowing of a democratic ruler and government and replacing it with a dictatorship.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: a drastic change in methods of production from small-to large-scale.
By the 1650s, The ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD in Europe had resulted from a number of situations.
Situations: 1. Blind Faith/Religion, 2.Oppressive Government, 3.Sufferings, Diseases, Deaths, and 4.Continuous warfare. Each one of the situations scholars, intellectuals, and scientists examined over a long period to improve the quality of life/standard of living in many Europeans countries.
HOW?: Factors of Reforms/Changes & Action to deal with the SITUATIONS.
• a. Philosophers/intellectuals/scholars. b. Scientists during the ENLIGHTENMENT Period in Europe: Many people wanted reforms/changes and action to improve the quality of life in their societies.
Philosophers such as John Locke and Voltaire used reason and rationale and provided evidence enabling people to find solutions to the abuse of those in authority/governments during a time of continuous war, conscription & taxation. Locke, Voltaire, and other intellectuals presented ideas on how people could take control of their lives and not rely only on divine intervention or religion to help them. The scholars did not want to use only BLIND FAITH/PRAYERS to endure/overcome whatever ongoing sufferings, calamities, tragedies, and disasters people were experiencing. What these scholars (philosophers, intellectuals, thinkers) did was to ENLIGHTEN or make the population aware of the abuses of government and religious leaders as well as monarchs (royal families). They also identified ways in which citizens could bring about changes or reforms in their societies.
• An Englishman, John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) stated that… humans are born without any ideas and that their environments influence their behavior…humans did not have to wait for religious intervention to change their circumstances because they had the power of doing so. Earlier, (1660 & 1685) Locke, in his writings, argued against Absolute monarchy (rights of kings & queens to rule however they wanted to); Locke stated that people had natural rights and people also had the right to overthrow oppressive rulers (later led to the American Revolution) Locke believed that government should protect property and ensure civil order; he was against legislation to support religion because that was an individual’s right to pursue. Locke supported SEPERATION OF THE CHURCH AND STATE. By supporting PROPERTY RIGHTS there was what some historians refer to as a negative consequence = justification for the enslavement of people that was a legal institution in many world societies of that period. Enslaved persons were regarded as property—Locke’s idea on PROPERTY RIGHTS were (later included in the U.S. Constitution.)
VOLTAIRE, the Frenchman, published Candide in1759. Voltaire was against warfare an occurrence that was extremely prevalent at the time. He also disliked religious persecutions and believed in TOLERATION…because he believed that religious toleration would help to end wars. Voltaire was against religious extremists.
To recap: During the ENLIGHTENMENT Period in Europe (1650s-1800s), many people wanted reforms/changes against abuse/oppression/sufferings/deaths caused by the actions of government, royal, and religious leaders, so that the quality of their lives would improve. John Locke and Voltaire who were philosophers gave some explanations/reasons for human sufferings…and offered solutions.
Montesquieu and Rousseau were scholars who focused on LAWS and GOVERNMENT. In Montesquieu’s publication, The Spirit of the Laws (1748), he used evidence from ancient and current societies and concluded that no single set of laws, should apply to all people all the time, everywhere. Montesquieu stated that rule by a monarchy or Democracy, Socialism, Authoritarian, and other forms of government have a time and place in human societies because social and religious customs, economic structures, traditions, and climate all play roles in the choice of a government…Montesquieu recommended the organizing and division of the functions of government agencies (different branches of government) to ensure checks and balance on the power of leaders…He noted that government power should be controlled by a Constitution, legislature, and laws.
Rousseau believed that materialism/greed had corrupted society and a SOCIAL CONTRACT was necessary because citizens have a responsibility to the community and government leaders also have a responsibility to ensure societies were democratic. Rousseau encouraged participation by means of Liberalism=opening up the society to bring about equality in economic and political power (and participation/voting etc.) but the idea was not applied to all people such as the enslaved, Indigenous people, women, or the working class
NOTE: All world societies in Asia, Africa, the Americas… (role of Columbus and other explorers) contributed to the European Enlightenment Period, but Europeans added their ideas, research, findings and inventions and were able to dominate vast areas around the world.
In addition to the scholars/intellectuals discussed above (Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu) and their ideas to improve relations between the upper class/rulers (church, monarchy, government) and the working class…you must have some knowledge of what each of them believed/recommended.
Students must use the index of the textbook to identify the readings for the various topics.
The SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION and Situations during the Enlightenment Period in Europe was also related to improving environmental Conditions and Situations caused by Diseases– epidemics, deadly insects, the Bubonic Plague, the Black Death and deaths due to injuries from continuous warfare; as well as floods, droughts, famine, and climate changes that caused untold hundreds of thousands of persons to die and sometimes the disappearance of entire areas. (Remember enlightenment means becoming aware)
2. Roles of Scientist (astronomers): Ptolemy, Nicolas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo. Nicolas Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who built on the earlier work of Ptolemy and situated the earth in relation to other heavenly bodies, planets, stars, and the sun. Mathematical calculations, data collection, and observation introduced new methods of scientific research. Consequently, a better understanding of climatic and other conditions affecting the weather and seasons and their impact on agriculture, land and sea travel, ocean currents, the direction of winds, and the drawing of more accurate maps followed. Tycho Brahe and Kepler took Copernicus ideas further. Galileo who first used a telescope, saw, and recognized heavenly bodies and movements that contradicted the teachings of the church. He was condemned by religious/governmental leaders, but he reinforced the importance of the laws of mathematics in the understanding of the functioning of the universe promoted the use of Empirical evidence, that is, if you do an experiment over and over again and it is correct; you will get the same result every time.
Francis Bacon also carried out scientific experiments, researched, and utilized new ideas and techniques while APPLYING the evidence and findings with the view of improving life. Bacon linked science with human progress. Isaac Newton, another scientist is associated with the Laws of Gravity, that is, how weight moves or is suspended in space. Newton utilized mathematics and physics to inquire into the relationship of objects to each other…He relied on research, experiment, and observations, and analysis of his findings to apply to appropriate situations. Newton contributed to the development of the aeronautical/aircraft industry.
During the Enlightenment Period, increasingly scientists across Europe built on earlier research– experimented and investigated the Environment, that is, space, water, and land enabling them to understand better how humans could control how they lived, improve their standard of living/quality of life, and to manufacture all kinds of machinery and equipment (including weapons) so that they could travel worldwide, explore, exploit, and obtain even more natural resources overseas for export to their homelands. Europeans were also able to control other humans and exploit them to their advantage, as in slavery. Europeans became wealthier, and as a result, they dominated large areas of the world during the period immediately before the 17th century (the Age of Exploration) and beyond the Enlightenment …
Remember, not only Europeans contributed to changes due to the Scientific Revolution…during the Enlightment Period (1600s-1800s) Asians, Africans, Pacific Ocean islanders, and Indigenous People/Native Americans of the Americas also contributed to the Scientific Revolution or drastic changes that took place over extended periods of time and that are still taking place. Explorers such as Marco Polo had traveled long distances to Asia…;earlier Greeks and Romans had ventured into Africa, the Islamic World, and the Indian sub-continent; and Columbus…the Americas—returned to their European countries with all kinds of information: medical, scientific, pharmaceutical, surgical, and technological which were further developed. All human societies contributed to developments in Europe during the Enlightenment Period, BUT the additional steps that Europeans took to develop more sophisticated weapons (gunpowder…the Chinese), to explore further, document and circulate (the printing press…the Chinese) information that served their cultural and economic interests… enabled them to dominate vast areas of the world for their benefit. The Encyclopedia (1751-1772) circulated all kinds of new information that revolutionized or drastically changed people’s thoughts and behavior.
Economics: During the Enlightenment period, the Scottish economist, Adam Smith published, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (The Wealth of Nations) (1776) and contributed to LAISSEZ FAIRE economics, that is, there is only a limited role for government in business. Smith claimed that regulations on labor/workers and manufacturing were not helpful in expanding businesses. He also pointed out that under Capitalism (Use the INTERNET to get an understanding of CAPITALISM & MAKE NOTES)…& laisse faire economics, businesspersons, investors, entrepreneurs, factory owners, and industrialists should be free to do whatever it takes to make limitless profits and enrich themselves. Smith felt that the resources of nature including water, air, soil, the sea, agricultural products, minerals and ores etc. were limitless and should be exploited for the benefit of Europeans who need not be poor. Smith offered an understanding of how Europeans came to think of themselves as the most superior humans on earth; and to justify their economic domination of the world, and how Europeans arrived at their so-called CIVILIZING MISSION and used their military power and religious, social, and economic institutions to dominate other societies across the globe.
Note well (NB) that all world societies/civilizations that Europeans and later North Americans (USA) dominated and exploited had their own way of life or traditions for centuries. Although, n some other societies/civilizations ALSO behaved similar to Europeans. There were autocratic rulers, constant warfare, and exploitation of others. Still, Smith’s theories resulted in some positive and negative consequences. Laissez Faire allowed manufacturers/factory owners/industrialists to treat workers inhumanely. As a result, exploitation of the working class caused much unrest and upheavals in Europe, the Americas, and elsewhere for a long time. The selective use of liberalism and equality limited reforms/changes.
It is important to note that the resources of nature are not limitless and natural resources disappear. Extracting resources by more developed countries caused underdevelopment in many areas world-wide. Capitalism influences monopolies, greed, price fixing, bribery, other illegal practices, and also dominance by the wealthy. Continuous conflict in many areas of the world including the so-called Civilizing Mission of Europeans resulted in tremendous problems in Asia, Africa, the Americas (North, Central, and South America, & the Caribbean), and the MIDDLE EAST = The Clash of Civilizations. To this day, those in power and the status quo read and interpret the ideas and philosophies of Locke and the other scholars—narrowly– in their own self-interests.
WOMEN including Margaret Cavendish, Maria Cunitz, and Maria Winkelmann contributed to the Scientific Revolution during the European Enlightenment.(Students to use the index of the textbook and make notes on Women in Europe during the period)
At that time, women were usually excluded from the centers of education such as monasteries, universities, and scientific societies, BUT some women, usually from the upper class whose male family connections allowed them to participate in scientific work, made important contributions to science and intellectual life. Most women were usually prevented from participating in government and administrative work. They were expected to and often compelled to domestic, maternal, wifely, child-care, and nursing duties. Women were also responsible for field and craft work and maintaining COTTAGE INDUSTRIES by making and preserving food, spinning threads and weaving cloth etc., mostly at home.
Check the Index of the textbook for the required reading. Do the readings on Women in the textbook and make notes. Remember to read the textbook. Use the index to find topics identified on your course outline and also make your own notes
To Recap/SUMMARY: In many ways what was happening in Europe during the Enlightenment Period (1600s-1800s) had long lasting consequences globally. Scientific research and new findings and techniques enabled Europeans to understand their situations and surroundings better, to improve the quality of their lives, and to industrialize, produce, and trade more goods including weapons. As a result, Europeans used their ideas, knowledge, and military strength and continued to explore vast areas of the world and dominate others globally BUT THE CIRCULATION OF IDEAS OF EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHERS ALSO MADE PEOPLE ACROSS THE ATLANTIC WORLD (North, Central, and South America) aware of leaders who were abusing them. Many persons across the Atlantic used these same philosophies/ideas and inventions/weapons of Europeans and applied them to their situations, to end their exploitation and oppression by MILITARY REVOLUTIONS to get rid of government abuse and introduce changes/reforms. Improved weapons manufactured in enormous quantities especially from the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION by the late 1700s in Europe, were also used to overthrow unjust governments. European ideas (Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu) were used by the leadership of the thirteen (13) British colonies in North America to stage the American Revolution and to formulate the amendments/provisions of the U.S. Constitution as guidelines for new government rules after the American Revolution, the Revolutionary War, or the War of Independence from Great Britain. Developments (ideas, science, industrialization) in Europe during the Enlightment Period contributed to REVOLUTIONS across the ATLANTIC WORLD in North American,. France, Haiti, and Latin America, governments were overthrown and societies evolved